Research Library

Under normal conditions, the body cells go through aerobic respiration, which is a long process where oxygen is used to convert the stored up glucose molecules, completely into energy. Anaerobic respiration also takes place in human beings when we exercise rigorously. During this time, we tend to take in less oxygen and this lack of oxygen prevents the oxygen from breaking down completely. This 'oxygen debt' results in the formation of an acid, or rather a 'poison' called lactic acid. There are many differences between the two types of respiration, the most important being the difference between the amount of energy released. In aerobic respiration, we get about 38 ATP molecules of energy from a single glucose molecule, while in anaerobic respiration only 2 ATP molecules of energy are released for the same quantity of glucose. So it is always advantageous to take breaks while exercising.

The term proprioception refers to a sense of joint position. Proprioception training is highly common in rehabilitation of injured athletes, but it can just as easily be used to prevent injury. Even a strong ankle can sprain when running on uneven ground if the runner hasn’t trained the neuromuscular system to react appropriately. Kinesthetic awareness, or the ability to know where your body parts are in 3-dimensional space, is required for every movement we make. So it's not surprising that balance can be learned, challenged, and improved. Balance training aids come in a variety of forms, although you can just as easily improve your balance with little or none of the fancy stuff. We can train our bodies to improve the proprioception within the muscles, just by creating balance challenges for ourselves.

The lack of research or science behind some of the conditioning programs in the NFL is startling. You would think if an owner is going to spend up to $127 million on his players, he would want to make sure his investment was being protected and not further beat down, as is still the case in some places. I have seen the impact some NFL strength coaches have had. The results have been staggering, both positively and negatively. I was on a team whose strength coach was intent on the players doing power cleans, a lift in which the player propels the weight to his shoulders in an explosive manner from the floor. Of the six or seven linemen who worked out all offseason with him, three had back surgeries within four months of each other. Maybe it was simply a coincidence. I doubt it.

There is limited research to support the notion that heavy resistive exercise immediately before a power movement may acutely enhance performance. Upper-body acute power enhancement during a stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) movement has not been previously investigated. The aim of this project was to determine whether a set of 5 repetitions of 5 repetition maximum (RM) bench press preceding explosive push-ups would significantly influence indicators of power: impulse and maximum rate of force development. Subjects randomly performed either explosive push-ups only over a force platform or a set of 5RM bench press before the explosive push-ups. There were no significant differences for any of the force platform data when the explosive push-ups were preceded by a set of 5RM bench press. It appears that heavy dynamic resistive upper-body exercise on its own before an upper-body power activity is inadequate in augmenting short-term power.

Athletes, by their very nature, constantly seek to improve their performance. They know training is the most effective way to excel, but they also know it is the hardest. The search for an extra edge makes nearly any purported performance booster alluring. There are plenty of ergogenics—substances that promise to improve physical performance—on the market to tempt both weekend warriors and competitive athletes. Ergogenics, through a variety of mechanisms, improve strength and endurance. They are typically used by endurance athletes who participate in sports that last more than three hours. Marathoners, ultramarathoners, triathletes and stage bicycle racers fall into this category.

It is generally accepted that muscle fiber types can be broken down into two main types:slow twitch (Type I) muscle fibers and fast twitch (Type II) muscle fibers. Fast twitch fibers can be further categorized into Type IIa and Type IIb fibers. Fiber Type and Performance Our muscle fiber type may influence what sports we are naturally good at or whether we are fast or strong. Olympic athletes tend to fall into sports that match their genetic makeup. Olympic sprinters have been shown to possess about 80 percent fast twitch fibers, while those who excel in marathons tend to have 80 percent slow twitch fibers.

It is generally accepted that muscle fiber types can be broken down into two main types:slow twitch (Type I) muscle fibers and fast twitch (Type II) muscle fibers. Fast twitch fibers can be further categorized into Type IIa and Type IIb fibers. Slow Twitch (Type I) The slow muscles are more efficient at using oxygen to generate more fuel (known as ATP) for continuous, extended muscle contractions over a long time. They fire more slowly than fast twitch fibers and can go for a long time before they fatigue. Therefore, slow twitch fibers are great at helping athletes run marathons and bicycle for hours.

It is generally accepted that muscle fiber types can be broken down into two main types:slow twitch (Type I) muscle fibers and fast twitch (Type II) muscle fibers. Fast twitch fibers can be further categorized into Type IIa and Type IIb fibers. Type IIb Fibers These fast twitch fibers use anaerobic metabolism to create energy and are the "classic" fast twitch muscle fibers that excel at producing quick, powerful bursts of speed. This muscle fiber has the highest rate of contraction (rapid firing) of all the muscle fiber types, but it also has a much faster rate of fatigue and can't last as long before it needs rest.

In a nation obsessed with looks and fitness, weight lifting is the latest workout craze. Recent studies have shown that lifting can lower blood pressure, combat diabetes and strengthen bones. Bookstore shelves are teeming with new fitness tomes touting weight lifting. Over the three years ended in 2001, participation in weight lifting in the U.S. has risen 12% -- while aerobic exercise declined 2%, according to American Sports Data Inc. Now, however, a small but growing number of researchers are raising concerns about the safety of lifting heavy weights. Such lifting can trigger strokes and aneurysms, and perhaps even cause a highly fatal arterial disease called dissection, believe doctors at prominent health centers such as Yale University School of Medicine and the Stanford University Medical Center.

The incubator, about the size of a small refrigerator, held shiny wire racks on which sat several rows of petri dishes containing clear pink liquid. Inside the liquid were threadlike clumps of mouse neurons, which were wired to platinum electrodes and covered with a white, pearlescent substance called myelin. Within that myelin, according to new research, lies the seed of talent. The myelin in question didn't look particularly epiphanic, which is understandable since it would normally be employed by mice for sniffing out food or navigating a maze. Neurologists theorize, however, that this humble-looking material is the common link between the Spartak kids, the Dominican baseball players and all the other blooms on the talent map -- a link all the more interesting for the fact that few outside this branch of neurology currently know much about myelin. It should be called the myelin map.

When a muscle becomes stronger in response to training, the gain in strength is usually attributed to an improvement in the size or quality of the muscle. The truth, however, is that strength upgrades can occur without any change in the muscle at all. Many upswings in strength are actually the result of alterations in the way the muscle is controlled by the NERVOUS SYSTEM. Specifically, the nervous system can do a better job of recruiting muscle fibres and collections of muscle cells (motor units) within the muscle during an athlete's sporting activity, thus producing more forceful movements.

As the resistance band is stretched, the resistance increases, providing stimulus progressively to the muscles. Regular isotonic exercises using fitness machines or free weights rely on gravity, that is the force opposing the weight, which limits the users movement. Using elastic resistance exercises many different workouts can be done and the resistance depends on how far it is stretched. This provides many more possibilities of movement and focal points of motion, exercising single and multiple joints, while developing the body. The elastic resistance method involves more balance and coordination than other elementary isotonic exercises. The band is kept steady through a higher level of neuro-muscular control than fitness machines and ensures a fluid return phase of the exercise, instead of having gravity take over.

27 soccer players followed the specific isokinetic training program for 2 months with a frequency of 3 times per week in order to correct the imbalances and the deficits. The results showed that there were significant differences between the pre- and post-training measures in peak torque values for knee extensors and flexors at both angular velocities. In addition, it is important that these players not only increase their peak torque values but also decrease the variability of strength measures. The results showed that a specific isokinetic training program, performed for 2 months with a frequency of 3 times per week, can restore efficiently the muscular performance expressed by peak torque. Thus, the application of an isokinetic test is useful in examination of possible muscle strength imbalances or bilateral differences in strength of knee muscle groups, and the performance of a specific isokinetic training program could eliminate these strength deficits and/or imbalances.

All skeletal muscles consist of three main fiber types. These fiber types are: 1) Slow twitch fibers- Responsible for the strength and endurance of a muscle. 2) Intermediate twitch fibers- Possess qualities of both slow and fast twitch fibers. 3) Fast twitch fibers- Responsible for the speed of muscular contraction. The fast twitch muscle fibers are responsible for giving the athlete his speed, agility, quickness, and power. Fast twitch fibers are up to 10 times faster than slow fibers. With isometric training, a muscle opposes some form of resistance and is contracted to a certain length and then held for a certain period of time, usually 10 seconds or more. There are no repetitions required here as in weight training.

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS Humans have basically three different types of muscle fibers. Slow- twitch (ST or Type I) fibers are identified by a slow contraction time and a high resistance to fatigue. Structurally, they have a small motor neuron and fiber diameter, a high mitochondrial and capillary density, and a high myoglobin content, Energetically, they have a low supply of creatine phosphate (a high-energy substrate used for quick, explosive movements), a low glycogen content, and a wealthy store of triglycerides (the stored form of fat). They contain few of the enzymes involved in glycolysis, but contain many of the enzymes involved in the oxidative pathways (Krebs cycle, electron transport chain). Functionally, ST fibers are used for aerobic activities requiring low-level force production, such as walking and maintaining posture. Most activities of daily living use ST fibers.

After the glycolysis takes place in the cell's cytoplasm, the pyruvic acid molecules travel into the interior of the mitochondrion. Once the pyruvic acid is inside, carbon dioxide is enzymatically removed from each three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule to form acetic acid. The enzyme then combines the acetic acid with an enzyme, coenzyme A, to produce acetyl coenzyme A, also known as acetyl CoA. Three major events occur during the Krebs cycle. One GTP (guanosine triphosphate) is produced which eventually donates a phosphate group to ADP to form one ATP; three molecules of NAD are reduced; and one molecule of FAD is reduced. Although one molecule of GTP leads to the production of one ATP, the production of the reduced NAD and FAD are far more significant in the cell's energy-generating process. This is because NADH and FADH2 donate their electrons to an electron transport system that generates large amounts of energy by forming many molecules of ATP.

Proprioception is often known as the sixth sense. It is the ability of your central nervous system to communicate and coordinate parts of your body with each other. An example would be touching your finger to your nose. How does your finger know where to find your nose? Another one would be walking forward in a straight line like you’re walking on a tight rope. How do your legs know where to plant your feet and how to balance so you don’t topple over? Your central nervous system is working with your muscles to make it happen. Kinesthetic awareness encompasses the body's abilities to coordinate motion (such as pitching a baseball) and the body's awareness of where it is in time and space (think dancing). When you see a troupe of ballet dancers moving together it is largely kinesthetic awareness that allows them to move in harmony together instead of bumping into each other.

Proprioception and kinesthetic awareness are often terms that are used interchangeably but they actually mean two separate things.Proprioception is an inner sense (the central nervous system) while kinesthetic awareness is an external sense (the body in space and time). However, they do work together and impact each other. Skiing is a good example of how proprioception and kinesthetic awareness work together. Skiing requires the body to reflexively know when and how to coordinate and move the limbs to stay upright. This is proprioception. At the same time, you need to know where your body is in relation to the skis and the slope. This is kinesthetic awareness.Improving proprioception and kinesthetic awareness People possess varying degrees of proprioception and kinesthetic awareness. The good news is that you can improve your proprioception and kinesthetic awareness.

This is the first comprehensive reference to address the basic science of proprioception and neuromuscular control. Drawn from the research of internationally respected authorities and spanning several disciplines, this is the one book you need in order to learn the status of scientifically supported knowledge regarding proprioception and its role in motor control and joint stability. This is your best resource for reviewing the structure and function of the sensorimotor system, gaining insight into the neuromuscular system as it relates to joint stability and proprioception, and developing rehabilitation programs aimed at correcting neuromuscular control and proprioception problems.

The depth jump is a plyometric exercise. Plyometric exercises work on the principle that a concentric muscular contraction is much stronger if it immediately follows an eccentric contraction of the same muscle. (Eccentric muscular action occurs when a muscle lengthens under load – eg the lowering phase of a biceps curl. Concentric muscular contraction occurs when a muscle shortens under load.) The effect of a plyometric exercise is a bit like stretching out a coiled spring to its fullest extent (the eccentric contraction), then letting it go (the concentric contraction); large amounts of energy are released in a split second as the spring recoils.

To prospectively evaluate the effect of neuromuscular training on the incidence of knee injury in female athletes, we monitored two groups of female athletes, one trained before sports participation and the other not trained, and a group of untrained male athletes throughout the high school soccer, volleyball, and basketball seasons. The knee injury incidence per 1000 athlete- exposures was 0.43 in untrained female athletes, 0.12 in trained female athletes, and 0.09 in male athletes(P 5 0.02, chi-square analysis). Untrained female athletes had a 3.6 times higher incidence of knee injury than trained female athletes (P 5 0.05) and 4.8 times higher than male athletes (P 5 0.03). This prospective study demonstrated a decreased incidence of knee injury in female athletes after a specific plyometric training program.

Programming means creating a Virtual Image of the training process that reproduces exactly its contents and Organisation. The coach must formulate a methodological conception of the athlete's preparation based on the elements provided by the specialist literature, and outline the training strategy. The methodological concept, is made up of a set of guidelines on the organisation of the training process, expressing their general ideas on how to manage an athlete's preparation. In all Track and Field disciplines, the methodological concept must always be based on the main principle governing the aquisition of Sports skills: Performance improvement is determined by a steady increase in the athlete's motor potential and capacity to use this potential efficiently during training and competition. Without an improvement in an athlete's Special physical preparation level, one cannot expect an improvement in technical and tactical skill, work Output, or the speed of execution.

Thoracic outlet syndrome is a condition whereby symptoms are produced from compression of nerves or blood vessels, or both, because of an inadequate passageway through an area (thoracic outlet) between the base of the neck and the armpit. The thoracic outlet is surrounded by muscle, bone, and other tissues. Any condition that results in enlargement or movement of the tissues of or near the thoracic outlet can cause the thoracic outlet syndrome. These conditions include muscle enlargement (such as from weight lifting), injuries, an extra rib from the neck at birth (cervical rib), weight gain, and tumors at the top of the lung (rare). Often no specific cause is found. It is felt by some researchers that the evolution of the torso of primates from a four-legged to a two-legged position may predispose humans to the development of thoracic outlet syndrome.

In high altitudes, the amount of oxygen in the blood is reduced because there's less oxygen in the air. To compensate for reduction of oxygen in the air, the kidneys secrete more of a hormone called erythropoietin, which causes the body to create more red blood cells. Runners are often able to train harder and perform better for several weeks after they return from about a month-long stay at altitude because their blood still contains the extra blood cells that were produced when they were training at high altitudes. Research indicates that the best altitude is between 7,000 to 8,000 feet. When you train at high altitudes, high-quality training becomes more difficult to achieve. Easy and long runs are doable at altitudes between 7,000 and 8000 feet, but the thinner air makes it difficult to do intense speed work.